Texts:1971 Man and His Circumstances Annotations: Difference between revisions
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<div class="anno" ID="A9">A9</div><div class="annotext">PEDAGOGY WAS NOT DIDACTICS (p. 22). This confusion has arisen in most modern languages, but it has been especially serious in English. In the late nineteenth century, the word "pedagogy" was identified with a system of didactics that reformers wanted to destroy. They at least managed to do away with the phrase "pedagogy." For a typical example of the educationist's attitude towards pedagogy see the entry under that heading in Monroe's <i>Cyclopedia of Education</i>. The article laconically proclaimed that the term had a dubious past and that wherever possible "education" should instead be used to escape the stigma of pedagogy. At the time the author was right, for "pedagogy" had generally been used as a synonym for "didactics," as "education" is now used carelessly as a synonym on the one hand for "training" and on the other for "propaganda." Perhaps we can steady the pendulum of fashion by insisting that both "pedagogy" and "education" be used rightly and whenever appropriate. Another amusing indication of the educationists' distaste for the word "pedagogy" is the metamorphosis of <i>The Pedagogical Seminary</i> into <i>The Journal of Genetic Psychology, Child Behavior, Animal Behavior, and Comparative Psychology</i>!</div> | <div class="anno" ID="A9">A9</div><div class="annotext">PEDAGOGY WAS NOT DIDACTICS (p. 22). This confusion has arisen in most modern languages, but it has been especially serious in English. In the late nineteenth century, the word "pedagogy" was identified with a system of didactics that reformers wanted to destroy. They at least managed to do away with the phrase "pedagogy." For a typical example of the educationist's attitude towards pedagogy see the entry under that heading in Monroe's <i>Cyclopedia of Education</i>. The article laconically proclaimed that the term had a dubious past and that wherever possible "education" should instead be used to escape the stigma of pedagogy. At the time the author was right, for "pedagogy" had generally been used as a synonym for "didactics," as "education" is now used carelessly as a synonym on the one hand for "training" and on the other for "propaganda." Perhaps we can steady the pendulum of fashion by insisting that both "pedagogy" and "education" be used rightly and whenever appropriate. Another amusing indication of the educationists' distaste for the word "pedagogy" is the metamorphosis of <i>The Pedagogical Seminary</i> into <i>The Journal of Genetic Psychology, Child Behavior, Animal Behavior, and Comparative Psychology</i>!</div> | ||
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<div class="anno" ID="A10">A10</div><div class="annotext">CIVIC IDEAL5 GAVE A COMMUNITY ITS CHARACTER. (p. 22). Ortega rather fully explained the importance of governing goals in <i>Vieja y nueva política</i>, 1914, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 267-308. See also "Asamblea para el progreso de las ciencias," 1908, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 106-110, where Ortega contended that training in particular, practical social skills would not really have an effect unless their underlying cultural principles were previously mastered. The conception of civic ideals introduced in this section was characteristic of Ortega's thought. See, for instance, "La pedagogía social como programa político," 1910, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 507, 514-7; <i>Vieja y nueva política</i>, 1914, <i>Obras</i> I, especially pp. 271--6, 288-294; and <i>Mirabeau, o el político</i>, 1927, <i>Obras</i> Ill, pp. 601-637. The influence of Ernest Renan on Ortega was important concerning the concept of civic ideals; see "La teología de Renan," 1910, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. | <div class="anno" ID="A10">A10</div><div class="annotext">CIVIC IDEAL5 GAVE A COMMUNITY ITS CHARACTER. (p. 22). Ortega rather fully explained the importance of governing goals in <i>Vieja y nueva política</i>, 1914, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 267-308. See also "Asamblea para el progreso de las ciencias," 1908, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 106-110, where Ortega contended that training in particular, practical social skills would not really have an effect unless their underlying cultural principles were previously mastered. The conception of civic ideals introduced in this section was characteristic of Ortega's thought. See, for instance, "La pedagogía social como programa político," 1910, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 507, 514-7; <i>Vieja y nueva política</i>, 1914, <i>Obras</i> I, especially pp. 271--6, 288-294; and <i>Mirabeau, o el político</i>, 1927, <i>Obras</i> Ill, pp. 601-637. The influence of Ernest Renan on Ortega was important concerning the concept of civic ideals; see "La teología de Renan," 1910, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 443467; and <i>La rebelión de las masas</i>, 1930, <i>Obras</i> IV, pp. 265270.<br/><br/> | ||
It is worthwhile to note the similarity of Ortega's conception of a civic ideal as something that points to the infinite and Edmund Husserl's conception of the <i>telos</i> of European man as an infinite, rather than a finite goal, "Philosophy and the Crisis of European Man," in <i>Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy</i>, Quentin Lauer, trans., pp. 157-8.</div> | It is worthwhile to note the similarity of Ortega's conception of a civic ideal as something that points to the infinite and Edmund Husserl's conception of the <i>telos</i> of European man as an infinite, rather than a finite goal, "Philosophy and the Crisis of European Man," in <i>Phenomenology and the Crisis of Philosophy</i>, Quentin Lauer, trans., pp. 157-8.</div> | ||
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<div class="anno" ID="A16">A16</div><div class="annotext">RECOURSE TO LOVE ... IS NEEDED TD EXPLIN TWO FEATURES OF LEARNING (p. 35). I In addition to Ortega's writings on the subject discussed below, my views have been influenced by Plato and Goethe. Plato's <i>Symposium</i> is, of course, fundamental but his attitude also is insinuated through most of his works and a familiarity with these is helpful in trying to follow Diotima's teaching as it is recounted by Socrates in the <i>Symposium</i>. There are useful discussions of <i>Eros</i> in Plato's philosophy in Paul Friedländer, <i>Plato: An Introduction</i>, <i>passim</i> and esp. pp. 32-58; F. M. Cornford, <i>The Unwritten Philosophy and Other Essays</i>, pp. 68-80; G. M. A. Grube, <i>Plato's Thought</i>, pp. 87-119; and Julius Stenzel, <i>Platon der Erzieher</i>, pp. 191-248. Goethe's great examination of the relation of love and self-culture is in <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>, <i>passim</i>. An excellent study by Ortega's contemporary, Max Scheler, is <i>Wesen und Formen der Sympathie</i>, a book that Ortega was quite familiar with. A striking book on <i>Eros and Education</i> could be written.</div> | <div class="anno" ID="A16">A16</div><div class="annotext">RECOURSE TO LOVE ... IS NEEDED TD EXPLIN TWO FEATURES OF LEARNING (p. 35). I In addition to Ortega's writings on the subject discussed below, my views have been influenced by Plato and Goethe. Plato's <i>Symposium</i> is, of course, fundamental but his attitude also is insinuated through most of his works and a familiarity with these is helpful in trying to follow Diotima's teaching as it is recounted by Socrates in the <i>Symposium</i>. There are useful discussions of <i>Eros</i> in Plato's philosophy in Paul Friedländer, <i>Plato: An Introduction</i>, <i>passim</i> and esp. pp. 32-58; F. M. Cornford, <i>The Unwritten Philosophy and Other Essays</i>, pp. 68-80; G. M. A. Grube, <i>Plato's Thought</i>, pp. 87-119; and Julius Stenzel, <i>Platon der Erzieher</i>, pp. 191-248. Goethe's great examination of the relation of love and self-culture is in <i>Wilhelm Meister</i>, <i>passim</i>. An excellent study by Ortega's contemporary, Max Scheler, is <i>Wesen und Formen der Sympathie</i>, a book that Ortega was quite familiar with. A striking book on <i>Eros and Education</i> could be written.</div> | ||
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<div class="anno" ID="A17">A17</div><div class="annotext">FOR ORTEGA, LOVE YEARNED FOR UNION WITH BEAUTY, TRUTH, AND GOODNESS (p. 37). Some of the more important essays by Ortega concerning his theory of love were "Psicoanálisis, ciencia problemática," 1911, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 216-238; <i>Meditaciones del Quijote</i>, 1914, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 310-4; "Leyendo el <i>Aldolfo</i>, libro de amor," 1916, <i>Obras</i> II, pp. 25-8; "Vitalidad, alma, espíritu," 1924, Obras II, pp. 451-460; "Para un psicología del hombre interesante," 1925, <i>Obras</i> IV, pp. | <div class="anno" ID="A17">A17</div><div class="annotext">FOR ORTEGA, LOVE YEARNED FOR UNION WITH BEAUTY, TRUTH, AND GOODNESS (p. 37). Some of the more important essays by Ortega concerning his theory of love were "Psicoanálisis, ciencia problemática," 1911, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 216-238; <i>Meditaciones del Quijote</i>, 1914, <i>Obras</i> I, pp. 310-4; "Leyendo el <i>Aldolfo</i>, libro de amor," 1916, <i>Obras</i> II, pp. 25-8; "Vitalidad, alma, espíritu," 1924, Obras II, pp. 451-460; "Para un psicología del hombre interesante," 1925, <i>Obras</i> IV, pp. 467480; and <i>Estudios sobre el amor</i>, 1941, <i>Obras</i> V, pp. 551-626. In her dissertation, "José Ortega y Gasset: The Creation of a Literary Genre for Philosophy," Sister Mary Terese Avila Duffy includes some interesting observations on <i>Eros</i> in Ortega's style, but for the most part, the importance of <i>Eros</i> for Ortega's thought has been ignored by commentators.</div> | ||
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<div class="anno" ID="A18">A18</div><div class="annotext">PHILOSOPHY IS A TRADITION OF SPECULATION (p. 36). See Ortega's "Prólogo a <i>Historia de Ia filosofía</i> de Karl Vorländer," 1922, and "Prólogo a <i>Historia de la filosofía</i> de Emile Bréhier," 1942, <i>Obras</i> VI, pp. 292-300, 377-418, as well as <i>Origen y epílogo de la filosofía</i>, 1943, 1960, <i>Obras</i> IX, pp. 349-434, for his views on the history of philosophy, which have influenced my views here. One of the better histories of philosophy for studying Ortega's preparations is<i> The Spirit of Modern Philosophy</i> by Josiah Royce, for in it he treats idealism as a living tradition rather than as a series of closed systems.</div> | <div class="anno" ID="A18">A18</div><div class="annotext">PHILOSOPHY IS A TRADITION OF SPECULATION (p. 36). See Ortega's "Prólogo a <i>Historia de Ia filosofía</i> de Karl Vorländer," 1922, and "Prólogo a <i>Historia de la filosofía</i> de Emile Bréhier," 1942, <i>Obras</i> VI, pp. 292-300, 377-418, as well as <i>Origen y epílogo de la filosofía</i>, 1943, 1960, <i>Obras</i> IX, pp. 349-434, for his views on the history of philosophy, which have influenced my views here. One of the better histories of philosophy for studying Ortega's preparations is<i> The Spirit of Modern Philosophy</i> by Josiah Royce, for in it he treats idealism as a living tradition rather than as a series of closed systems.</div> | ||
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Studies of propaganda and mass communication are legion. <i>Propaganda</i> by Jacques Ellul strikes me as the best introduction to the subject, for Ellul does not shirk the difficult aspects of the matter: he shows that propaganda is an established element of everyone's way of life, that it has definite effects, some good and many bad, and that there is a tremendous, perhaps impossible, problem in reconciling the facts of propaganda with our political heritage and hopes. An earlier work that also excels as an introduction to the matter is Walter Lippmann's <i>Public Opinion</i>, which expresses greater optimism about the ability of reason to control and absorb propaganda than does Ellul's work. Both Lippmann and Ellul raise questions ultimately reflecting doubts whether the recipient of propaganda and mass communications can maintain his autonomous powers of judgment, whether the recipient can keep from being drawn into a crowd. Wilbur Schramm in his important book <i>Responsibility in Mass Communication</i> looks at the matter from the other end, asking whether open, responsible access to the means of communication can be maintained. Although this is itself a crucial question, on which there is a great deal of discussion that may be found by using Schramm's bibliography, the questions raised by Ellul and Lippmann seem to me more fundamental.<br/><br/> | Studies of propaganda and mass communication are legion. <i>Propaganda</i> by Jacques Ellul strikes me as the best introduction to the subject, for Ellul does not shirk the difficult aspects of the matter: he shows that propaganda is an established element of everyone's way of life, that it has definite effects, some good and many bad, and that there is a tremendous, perhaps impossible, problem in reconciling the facts of propaganda with our political heritage and hopes. An earlier work that also excels as an introduction to the matter is Walter Lippmann's <i>Public Opinion</i>, which expresses greater optimism about the ability of reason to control and absorb propaganda than does Ellul's work. Both Lippmann and Ellul raise questions ultimately reflecting doubts whether the recipient of propaganda and mass communications can maintain his autonomous powers of judgment, whether the recipient can keep from being drawn into a crowd. Wilbur Schramm in his important book <i>Responsibility in Mass Communication</i> looks at the matter from the other end, asking whether open, responsible access to the means of communication can be maintained. Although this is itself a crucial question, on which there is a great deal of discussion that may be found by using Schramm's bibliography, the questions raised by Ellul and Lippmann seem to me more fundamental.<br/><br/> | ||
Many other works have contributed to my understanding not only of the problems raised by mass communications, but also by bureaucracy and ideological criticism. Among them are <i>The Bias of Communications</i> by Harold A. Innis. <i>Le temps hacerlant</i> by Enrico Castelli; <i>The Origins of Totalitarianism</i> by Hannah Arendt; <i>Man in the Modern Age</i> by Karl Jaspers; <i>The House of Intellect</i> by Jacques Barzun, and many others. In calling attention to these difficulties, one is not foretelling doom or condemning traditional aspirations. One is, however, asking for the reinvigoration of the theoretical imagination. The empirical obsessions of social science seem to me to indicate a deep-seated death wish. The political forces in the midst of which we live have little to do, integrally, organically, with our national institutions; yet our conceptions of what political procedures are proper, which ones will allow the human spirit to flourish humanely, are all keyed to the nation-states. The productive capital of political theory that we have inherited from the Enlightenment is fast wearing out, yet very few people have been trying speculatively to construct replacements. The defense of freedom and reason must find an arena other than national politics, and | Many other works have contributed to my understanding not only of the problems raised by mass communications, but also by bureaucracy and ideological criticism. Among them are <i>The Bias of Communications</i> by Harold A. Innis. <i>Le temps hacerlant</i> by Enrico Castelli; <i>The Origins of Totalitarianism</i> by Hannah Arendt; <i>Man in the Modern Age</i> by Karl Jaspers; <i>The House of Intellect</i> by Jacques Barzun, and many others. In calling attention to these difficulties, one is not foretelling doom or condemning traditional aspirations. One is, however, asking for the reinvigoration of the theoretical imagination. The empirical obsessions of social science seem to me to indicate a deep-seated death wish. The political forces in the midst of which we live have little to do, integrally, organically, with our national institutions; yet our conceptions of what political procedures are proper, which ones will allow the human spirit to flourish humanely, are all keyed to the nation-states. The productive capital of political theory that we have inherited from the Enlightenment is fast wearing out, yet very few people have been trying speculatively to construct replacements. The defense of freedom and reason must find an arena other than national politics, and itsabsurd extension in inter-national politics, in which to conduct its campaign. Political and pedagogical theorists have before them the task of setting forth such a supranational community.</div> | ||
<h2>Chapter X — Scarcity and Abundance</h2> | <h2>Chapter X — Scarcity and Abundance</h2> | ||